Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology (2024)

  1. Sattar SBA, Nguyen AD, Sharma S. Bacterial Pneumonia. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan. [Full Text].

  2. Claudius I, Baraff LJ. Pediatric emergencies associated with fever. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2010 Feb. 28(1):67-84, vii-viii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  3. Hussain AN, Kumar V. The lung. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, eds. Robbins and Cotran: Pathologic Basis of Disease. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Saunders; 2005. 711-72.

  4. [Guideline] Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1. 44 Suppl 2:S27-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  5. Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 27th ed. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2003.

  6. Brundage JF, Shanks GD. Deaths from bacterial pneumonia during 1918-19 influenza pandemic. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Aug. 14(8):1193-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  7. Anand N, Kollef MH. The alphabet soup of pneumonia: CAP, HAP, HCAP, NHAP, and VAP. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):3-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  8. El Solh AA. Nursing home-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):16-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  9. Kuti JL, Shore E, Palter M, Nicolau DP. Tackling empirical antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in your ICU: guidance for implementing the guidelines. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):102-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  10. Chacko R, Rajan A, Lionel P, Thilagavathi M, Yadav B, Premkumar J. Oral decontamination techniques and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Br J Nurs. 2017 Jun 8. 26 (11):594-599. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  11. Bouglé A, Foucrier A, Dupont H, Montravers P, Ouattara A, Kalfon P, et al. Impact of the duration of antibiotics on clinical events in patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia: study protocol for a randomized controlled study. Trials. 2017 Jan 23. 18 (1):37. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  12. Kollef MH, Ricard JD, Roux D, et al. A Randomized Trial of the Amikacin Fosfomycin Inhalation System for the Adjunctive Therapy of Gram-Negative Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: IASIS Trial. Chest. 2017 Jun. 151 (6):1239-1246. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  13. Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, Muscedere J, Sweeney DA, Palmer LB, et al. Executive Summary: Management of Adults With Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 1. 63 (5):575-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  14. Chalmers JD, Rother C, Salih W, Ewig S. Healthcare-associated pneumonia does not accurately identify potentially resistant pathogens: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Feb. 58 (3):330-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  15. Eggimann P, Pittet D. Infection control in the ICU. Chest. 2001 Dec. 120(6):2059-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  16. Gaynes R, Edwards JR. Overview of nosocomial infections caused by gram-negative bacilli. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Sep 15. 41(6):848-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  17. Peleg AY, Hooper DC. Hospital-acquired infections due to gram-negative bacteria. N Engl J Med. 2010 May 13. 362(19):1804-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  18. Marik PE. Aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2001 Mar 1. 344(9):665-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  19. Mizgerd JP. Acute lower respiratory tract infection. N Engl J Med. 2008 Feb 14. 358(7):716-27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  20. Rubins JB, Janoff EN. Pneumolysin: a multifunctional pneumococcal virulence factor. J Lab Clin Med. 1998 Jan. 131(1):21-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  21. Sadikot RT, Blackwell TS, Christman JW, Prince AS. Pathogen-host interactions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005 Jun 1. 171(11):1209-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  22. McCullers JA. Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 Jul. 19(3):571-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  23. Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness. J Infect Dis. 2008 Oct 1. 198(7):962-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  24. Forgie S, Marrie TJ. Healthcare-associated atypical pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):67-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pneumonia. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/pneumonia/index.html. Accessed: June 21, 2024.

  26. Restrepo MI, Anzueto A. The role of gram-negative bacteria in healthcare-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):61-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  27. Bacterial coinfections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) - United States, May-August 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009 Oct 2. 58(38):1071-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  28. 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in pregnant women requiring intensive care - New York City, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010 Mar 26. 59(11):321-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  29. Pahal P, Rajasurya V, Sharma S. Typical Bacterial Pneumonia. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan. [Full Text].

  30. Tanaka S, Yamamoto K, Hagiya H, Hasegawa K, Otsuka F. Threat of Staphylococcus aureus Pneumonia in Severe COVID-19 Patients. Cureus. 2022 Feb. 14 (2):e22486. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  31. Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA. 2001 Jun 6. 285(21):2763-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  32. Stamm DR, Stankewicz HA. Atypical Pneumonia. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan. [Full Text].

  33. Rello J, Ollendorf DA, Oster G, Vera-Llonch M, Bellm L, Redman R, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large US database. Chest. 2002 Dec. 122(6):2115-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  34. American Lung Association. Trends in pneumonia and influenza morbidity and mortality. November 2015. American Lung Association. Available at https://www.lung.org/getmedia/98f088b5-3fd7-4c43-a490-ba8f4747bd4d/pi-trend-report.pdf.pdf. Accessed: June 21, 2024.

  35. Kung HC, Hoyert DL, Xu JQ, Murphy SL, and the Division of Vital Statistics. Deaths: final data for 2005. National Vital Statistics Reports. Hyattsville, Md: National Center for Health Statistics April 2008: 56(10). https://www.cdc.gov. Available at https://bit.ly/i3ATH5. Accessed: June 21, 2024.

  36. Mufson MA, Stanek RJ. Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia in one American City: a 20-year longitudinal study, 1978-1997. Am J Med. 1999 Jul 26. 107(1A):34S-43S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  37. Komiya K, Yoshikawa H, Goto A, Yamamoto T, Yamasue M, Johkoh T, et al. Radiological patterns and prognosis in elderly patients with acute Klebsiella pneumoniae pneumonia: A retrospective study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2022 Aug 12. 101 (32):e29734. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  38. Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, Marcos MA, Esquinas C, Gabarrús A, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr. 66(4):340-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  39. van der Poll T, Opal SM. Pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia. Lancet. 2009 Oct 31. 374(9700):1543-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  40. Slovis BS, Brigham KL. Cecil Essentials of Medicine. : Andreoli T, Carpenter CCJ, Griggs RC, Loscalzo J. Approach to the patient with respiratory disease. 6th ed. WB Saunders Co: Philadelphia, Pa; 2004. 177-80.

  41. Brown SM, Jones BE, Jephson AR, Dean NC. Validation of the Infectious Disease Society of America/American Thoracic Society 2007 guidelines for severe community-acquired pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2009 Dec. 37(12):3010-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  42. Fang WF, Yang KY, Wu CL, Yu CJ, Chen CW, Tu CY, et al. Application and comparison of scoring indices to predict outcomes in patients with healthcare-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2011 Jan 19. 15(1):R32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  43. Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, Boersma WG, Karalus N, Town GI, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax. 2003 May. 58(5):377-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  44. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld LA, Singer DE, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jan 23. 336(4):243-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  45. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Pneumonia severity index calculator. Available at https://pda.ahrq.gov/clinic/psi/psicalc.asp. Accessed: January 13, 2011.

  46. Sligl WI, Majumdar SR, Marrie TJ. Triaging severe pneumonia: what is the "score" on prediction rules?. Crit Care Med. 2009 Dec. 37(12):3166-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  47. Phua J, See KC, Chan YH, Widjaja LS, Aung NW, Ngerng WJ, et al. Validation and clinical implications of the IDSA/ATS minor criteria for severe community-acquired pneumonia. Thorax. 2009 Jul. 64(7):598-603. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  48. Bloos F, Marshall JC, Dellinger RP, et al. Multinational, observational study of procalcitonin in ICU patients with pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation: a multicenter observational study. Crit Care. 2011 Mar 7. 15(2):R88. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  49. Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE. APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med. 1985 Oct. 13(10):818-29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  50. Le Gall JR, Lemeshow S, Saulnier F. A new Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) based on a European/North American multicenter study. JAMA. 1993 Dec 22-29. 270(24):2957-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  51. Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J, Willatts S, De Mendonça A, Bruining H, et al. The SOFA (Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure. On behalf of the Working Group on Sepsis-Related Problems of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med. 1996 Jul. 22(7):707-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  52. El-Solh AA, Alhajhusain A, Abou Jaoude P, Drinka P. Validity of severity scores in hospitalized patients with nursing home-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2010 Dec. 138(6):1371-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  53. España PP, Capelastegui A, Gorordo I, Esteban C, Oribe M, Ortega M, et al. Development and validation of a clinical prediction rule for severe community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Dec 1. 174(11):1249-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  54. Rello J, Rodriguez A, Lisboa T, Gallego M, Lujan M, Wunderink R. PIRO score for community-acquired pneumonia: a new prediction rule for assessment of severity in intensive care unit patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 37(2):456-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  55. Charles PG, Wolfe R, Whitby M, Fine MJ, Fuller AJ, Stirling R, et al. SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Aug 1. 47(3):375-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  56. Light RW. Clinical practice. Pleural effusion. N Engl J Med. 2002 Jun 20. 346 (25):1971-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  57. Bafadhel M, Clark TW, Reid C, Medina MJ, Batham S, Barer MR, et al. Procalcitonin and C reactive protein in hospitalised adult patients with community acquired pneumonia, exacerbation of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest. 2010 Oct 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  58. Skerrett SJ. Diagnostic testing for community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 1999 Sep. 20(3):531-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  59. Smith PR. What diagnostic tests are needed for community-acquired pneumonia?. Med Clin North Am. 2001 Nov. 85(6):1381-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  60. Ketai L, Jordan K, Marom EM. Imaging infection. Clin Chest Med. 2008 Mar. 29(1):77-105, vi. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  61. Cooper MS, Stewart PM. Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2003 Feb 20. 348(8):727-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  62. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, Ressler J, Muzzin A, Knoblich B, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8. 345(19):1368-77. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  63. Kang YA, Kwon SY, Yoon HI, Lee JH, Lee CT. Role of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin in differentiation of tuberculosis from bacterial community acquired pneumonia. Korean J Intern Med. 2009 Dec. 24(4):337-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  64. Pirracchio R, Mateo J, Raskine L, Rigon MR, Lukaszewicz AC, Mebazaa A, et al. Can bacteriological upper airway samples obtained at intensive care unit admission guide empiric antibiotherapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia?. Crit Care Med. 2009 Sep. 37(9):2559-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  65. Arnold SR, Jain S, Dansie D, Kan H, Williams DJ, Ampofo K, et al. Association of Radiology Findings with Etiology of Community Acquired Pneumonia among Children. J Pediatr. 2023 Oct. 261:113333. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  66. Gharib AM, Stern EJ. Radiology of pneumonia. Med Clin North Am. 2001 Nov. 85(6):1461-91, x. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  67. Tarver RD, Teague SD, Heitkamp DE, Conces DJ Jr. Radiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Radiol Clin North Am. 2005 May. 43(3):497-512, viii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  68. Gotway MB, Reddy GP, Webb WR, Elicker BM, Leung JW. High-resolution CT of the lung: patterns of disease and differential diagnoses. Radiol Clin North Am. 2005 May. 43(3):513-42, viii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  69. Haaksma ME, Smit JM, Heldeweg MLA, Nooitgedacht JS, de Grooth HJ, Jonkman AH, et al. Extended Lung Ultrasound to Differentiate Between Pneumonia and Atelectasis in Critically Ill Patients: A Diagnostic Accuracy Study. Crit Care Med. 2022 May 1. 50 (5):750-759. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  70. [Guideline] Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Intensive Care Med. 2008 Jan. 34(1):17-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  71. Siemieniuk RA, Meade MO, Alonso-Coello P, Briel M, Evaniew N, Prasad M, et al. Corticosteroid Therapy for Patients Hospitalized With Community-Acquired Pneumonia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Oct 6. 163 (7):519-28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  72. Arnold FW, LaJoie AS, Brock GN, Peyrani P, Rello J, Menéndez R, et al. Improving outcomes in elderly patients with community-acquired pneumonia by adhering to national guidelines: Community-Acquired Pneumonia Organization International cohort study results. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Sep 14. 169(16):1515-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  73. McCabe C, Kirchner C, Zhang H, Daley J, Fisman DN. Guideline-concordant therapy and reduced mortality and length of stay in adults with community-acquired pneumonia: playing by the rules. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Sep 14. 169(16):1525-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  74. [Guideline] Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Joint Commission. Specifications manual for national hospital inpatient quality measures. V. 2.6b. Manual download retrieved April 2009.

  75. Kalil AC, Murthy MH, Hermsen ED, Neto FK, Sun J, Rupp ME. Linezolid versus vancomycin or teicoplanin for nosocomial pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2010 Sep. 38(9):1802-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  76. Lam AP, Wunderink RG. The role of MRSA in healthcare-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Feb. 30(1):52-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  77. Shrestha SS, Swerdlow DL, Borse RH, Prabhu VS, Finelli L, Atkins CY, et al. Estimating the burden of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in the United States (April 2009-April 2010). Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Jan 1. 52 Suppl 1:S75-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  78. Sullivan SJ, Jacobson RM, Dowdle WR, Poland GA. 2009 H1N1 influenza. Mayo Clin Proc. 2010 Jan. 85(1):64-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  79. Kobayashi M, Farrar JL, Gierke R, Britton A, Childs L, Leidner AJ, et al. Use of 15-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and 20-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Among U.S. Adults: Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Jan 28. 71 (4):109-117. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  80. Bruno C, Buntinx E, Pelayo E, et al. A Phase 3 randomized, double-blind, active comparator-controlled study to evaluate the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity of a 21-valent PCV, V116, in pneumococcal vaccine-naïve adults (STRIDE-3) (abstract P21). JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, Volume 6, Issue Supplement_1, January 2024. [Full Text].

  81. Tang KL, Eurich DT, Minhas-Sandhu JK, Marrie TJ, Majumdar SR. Incidence, correlates, and chest radiographic yield of new lung cancer diagnosis in 3398 patients with pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 2011 Jul 11. 171(13):1193-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  82. [Guideline] Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, Anzueto A, Brozek J, Crothers K, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Adults with Community-acquired Pneumonia. An Official Clinical Practice Guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1. 200 (7):e45-e67. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  83. FDA requests boxed warnings on fluoroquinolone antimicrobial drugs: seeks to strengthen warnings concerning increased risk of tendinitis and tendon rupture [press release]. Silver Spring, Md: US Food and Drug Administration; July 8, 2008. FDA. Available at https://bit.ly/fkBFeA. Accessed: January 14, 2011.

  84. Kollef M, et al. ASPECT-NP: a randomized, double-blind, phase III trial comparing efficacy and safety of ceftolozane/ tazobactam versus meropenem in patients with ventilated nosocomial pneumonia (VNP). Presented at the 2019 European Congress of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases (ECCMID) (P1917). Amsterdam, Netherlands. 13-16 April 2019.

Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology (2024)
Top Articles
Latest Posts
Recommended Articles
Article information

Author: Rev. Leonie Wyman

Last Updated:

Views: 6448

Rating: 4.9 / 5 (59 voted)

Reviews: 90% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Rev. Leonie Wyman

Birthday: 1993-07-01

Address: Suite 763 6272 Lang Bypass, New Xochitlport, VT 72704-3308

Phone: +22014484519944

Job: Banking Officer

Hobby: Sailing, Gaming, Basketball, Calligraphy, Mycology, Astronomy, Juggling

Introduction: My name is Rev. Leonie Wyman, I am a colorful, tasty, splendid, fair, witty, gorgeous, splendid person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.